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Tesis de la Escuela de Posgrado y de la Escuela de Negocios de CENTRUM Católica
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Item Heavy neutrino production and decay at DUNE Near Detector(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2024-08-13) Carbajal Vigo, Saneli Alcides; Gago Medina, Alberto MartínEn la presente tesis se estudia el potencial del DUNE Near Detector (DUNEND) para establecer límites a neutrinos pesados (HNL). Esto es realizado a través de un estudio de cómo los HNL afectan las tasas de producción y las distribuciones angulares de los neutrinos activos. Se demuestra que la producción de HNL en DUNE produce un déficit de eventos de corriente cargada (CC) en el Liquid Argon Time Proyection Chamber (LArTPC) de DUNEND y se utiliza esto para estimar la sensibilidad de DUNE a HNLs. Nuestro análisis revela que la sensibilidad depende fuertemente de las incertidumbres sistemáticas en las predicciones del flujo de neutrinos de DUNE. Asumiendo 10 años de operación (5 en modo neutrino y 5 en modo antineutrino) se obtienen los límites |Uμ4|2 < 9×10−3(4×10−2) y |Ue4|2 < 7×10−3(3×10−2) para masas por debajo de 10 MeV y una incertidumbre del 5%(20%) en la normalización de la predicción de los eventos de corriente cargada de neutrinos. Estos límites son mejores que aquellos que pueden ser alcanzados por las búsquedas directas en DUNE para masas por debajo de los 2(10) MeV. Para el caso de una incertidumbre conservadora del 20%, los límites obtenidos solo pueden mejorar los límites experimentales actuales en |Ue4|2 por un factor de 3 en una pequeña región alrededor de 5 eV y establecer límites en |Uμ4|2 en una región de masas libre de restricciones (40 eV - 1 MeV).Item Advances in quantum state tomography and strong measurements of quantum weak values(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2024-01-19) Ruelas Paredes, David Reinaldo Alejandro; Massoni Kamimoto, Eduardo RubénEste trabajo contiene dos contribuciones al campo de la teoría cuántica. La primera viene por doble partida: un protocolo óptico para producir y realizar tomografía de estados puros, arbitrarios, de dos qubits codificados en grados de libertad de camino y polarización; y un protocolo generalizado para hacer tomografía de estados mixtos del mismo tipo. Se reporta una realización con luz láser del primer esquema, la cual sirve como prueba de concepto. La segunda contribución es un modelo dentro del paradigma de von Neumann para las mediciones. Su utilidad yace en que permite estudiar el efecto de la fuerza del acoplamiento entre sistema y puntero sobre la incertidumbre estadística y los errores sistemáticos que resultan de medir valores débiles cuánticos y estados puros. Esta propuesta –cuya implementación con luz láser o con fotones individuales es también explicada– fue demostrada usando sistemas de computación cuántica provistos por IBM. Los resultados obtenidos mediante mediciones con distintos grados de fuerza disipan la idea de que las mediciones fuertes siempre dan mejores resultados que sus contrapartes débiles. Quizá más importante todavía, esta realización experimental aporta evidencia de que es posible maximizar la precisión y exactitud de los parámetros medidos si se elige adecuadamente el acoplamiento de la medición.Item New insights on the empirical predictability of spectral indicators for PV performance(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2023-10-13) Sevillano Bendezú, Miguel Ángel; Palomino Töfflinger, Jan AmaruAccurate produced PV energy estimation is critical to business decisions under long-term investments in PV on a utility scale. PV energy yield is affected by different sites' specific conditions. The variability of the spectral distribution after temperature and irradiation is a site condition that impacts energy yield estimates. Evaluating the impact of the spectral irradiance distribution on the PV performance generally requires accurate information about the PV device's spectral response and the site’s measured spectra. Detailed spectral and device information may not always be available. This study analyzes the interrelations between device-dependent and device-independent energetic spectral indicators with spectral data from nine sites with different climates and latitudes, aiming to relax the requirement for detailed device and spectral information. First, an apparent correlation of each site's spectral distributions' yearly Average Photon Energy with the corresponding latitude is observed. As the commonly applied device-dependent spectral indicator, it can be observed that the monthly mismatch factors of all nine sites exhibit a global linear relationship with the monthly average photon energies. This linear relationship with measured spectral data provides a predictive character for each PV device technology by allowing the estimation of the annual spectral impact from the annual Average Photon Energy, potentially for any site. This work also analyzes the validity of the Spectral Average Useful Fraction and the Spectral Enhancement Factor as alternative device-dependent spectral indicators. These require average spectra and, thus, would reduce the calculation complexity for spectral indicators. Finally, the proposed method was validated qualitatively using synthetic spectral data from the National Solar Radiation Database. The trends of the scatter plot between the synthetic Spectral Mismatch Factor and the Average Photon Energy that follow the experimental linear regression give an idea of the proposed method's functionality, despite the synthetic data's uncertainties.Item Caracterización de un estado puro camino-polarización, extensión del Teorema de polarización-coherencia y Relación de trialidad en sistemas tripartitos(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2023-10-13) Marrou Osores, Jean Paul; De Zela Martínez, Francisco AntonioEsta tesis expone realizaciones experimentales sobre tres temas desarrolladas en el Grupo de Óptica Cuántica de la PUCP. Primero, tenemos el trabajo sobre tomografía de un estado puro bipartito de camino-polarización, donde se produjeron y caracterizaron dichos estados para luz clásica. Se propuso un método que requiere mediciones estándar de polarización, aun cuando el estado sea bipartito. Se obtuvieron resultados satisfactorios de tres estados con distintas fases y amplitudes. Luego, y también para luz clásica, se presenta la extensión para dos qubits del Teorema de polarización-coherencia (PCT) (Eberly et al., 2017), que involucra la dualidad onda-partícula. Este teorema, que relaciona visibilidad, distinguibilidad y polarización, se extendió luego para el caso donde la polarización actúa como marcador (De Zela, 2018), sin embargo, el qubit de camino no tenía participación en las cantidades a medir. Es así que se expone una realización experimental que permite también su contribución, evidenciando la generalización del teorema. Finalmente, con fotones individuales, se proponen dos extensiones a estados puros tripartitos. Por un lado, la del PCT y, por otro, la Relación de trialidad (Qian et al., 2018), que involucra visibilidad, distinguibilidad y concurrencia. Para ello, se aprovechó la restricción entre grado de polarización y concurrencia (Qian et al., 2016), donde esta puede referirse ahora a sectores del estado tripartito, por lo que se usó una concurrencia generalizada (Rungta et al, 2001). De esa manera, veremos que el entrelazamiento entre subsistemas participará en ambas relaciones que se buscan generalizar, además de ampliar la visión sobre el concepto de dualidad onda-partícula.Item Characterization of luminescent ITO:Tb and AZO:Tb thin films prepared by radio frequency magnetron sputtering(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2023-05-09) Llontop López-Dávalos, Paul David; Guerra Torres, Jorge AndresThis thesis investigates the effects of introducing terbium to indium tin oxide (ITO) and aluminum zinc oxide (AZO) thin films on their electrical, optical and light emission properties. The films were prepared by radio frequency magnetron co-sputtering with active cooling during deposition. The samples maintained a high optical transmittance in the ultraviolet and visible spectral regions. ITO:Tb showed a low electrical resistivity ranging from 5×10−3 Ω·cm to 0.3Ω·cm, whilst AZO:Tb resulted with a high resistivity which could not be measured with the available equipment. Tb-related luminescence was obtained in ITO:Tb after annealing at 470 ◦C in air at atmospheric conditions. Contrastingly, AZO:Tb showed characteristic Tb luminescence in the as-grown state and further annealing treatments reduced the Tb-related intensity. For both materials, the optical transmittance was measured at each annealing temperature to track the changes in the optical parameters such as optical band gap and Urbach energy. Additionally, exciton binding energy in the case of AZO:Tb was also registered. Together with cathodoluminescence and photoluminescence (PL) measurements, the compromise between the achieved light emission intensity, optical and electrical properties was assessed for each material. Temperature dependence of the Tb-related luminescence and thermal quenching was assessed by temperature-dependent PL measurements from 83K to 533K under non-resonant indirect excitation. Thermal quenching activation energies suggest an effective energy transfer mechanism from the host to the Tb ions. In the case of ITO:Tb, it is assumed that a short-range charge trapping process and subsquent formation of bound excitons to Tb ion clusters is occuring at low sample temperatures. This indirect excitation mechanism is modeled using a spherical potential-well and a tight-binding one-band approximation models. For AZO:Tb, a similar approach is carried out, although the excitons are assumed to be bound to Tb ion clusters or Tb complexes that arise from the coordination with AZO intrinsic defects.Item Analysis of the physical properties and photoelectrochemical behavior of c-Si/a-SiC:H(p) photocathodes for solar water splitting(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2023-01-16) Mejia Chueca, María del Carmen; Rumiche Zapata, Francisco AurelioPhotoelectrochemical (PEC) processes have become an efficient and viable method for solar energy conversion into zero-emission fuels by harnessing and storage the power of the sun, which offers an environment-friendly approach. Hydrogen is considered as a sustainable and suitable energy alternative in comparison to energy systems based on the consumption of conventional hydrocarbon fuels. In particular, hydrogen production by PEC water splitting represents an attractive alternative to enhance the efficiency of water splitting process using sun light. Current research in this field is devoted to the fabrication and evaluation of new photoactive materials that upon sunlight absorption enable water-splitting PEC reactions with high efficiency and durability. Silicon based compounds offer a good opportunity as photoactive material due to its high abundance and current scalable technologies. Silicon is the eighth most abundant element in the universe and constitutes up to 27.2% of the earth’s crust weight [1]. Particularly, hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (a-SiC:H) thin films have been tested as photocathode material for photo-assisted electrolysis, exhibiting solar to hydrogen conversion efficiencies up to 7.5 %. Due to the capability to tailor the bandgap (1.8 - 3.3 eV) by the incorporation of carbon in a-Si:H, this material has turned out to be a promising candidate for PEC cells, fulfilling the optical bandgap (Egap) primary requirement, i.e. Egap > 2.2 eV. Additionally, the carbon incorporation leads to an enhancement of the corrosion resistance properties in aqueous media. It has been theoretically estimated that a PEC device with an a-Si0.9C0.1:H absorption layer exhibiting 2.0 eV of energy bandgap, can generate a photocurrent density Jph of 15 mA/cm2 (solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency ∼18 %) when submitted to an Air mass (AM) 1.5 solar spectrum [2]. The specific value of 1.5 for the Air mass is selected for standardization purposes, based on the analysis of solar irradiance data in the United States, and corresponds to a power of 1000 W/cm2 [3]. In the present work, a similar material a-Si0.5C0.5:H exhibiting 2.76 eV of energy bandgap generates a Jph of 17 mA/cm2 when submitted to the same light spectrum. This reflects an improvement in the use of a-SiC:H in PEC water splitting. Research on single thin film photoactive materials does not typically consider the role of the silicon substrate in the photoelectrochemical performance. In this sense, the photoelectrode is a system formed by a p-p, n-n or n-p structure, which depending on the depth of the space charge region may have an important impact on the photoelectrode performance. In this work, this substrate effect has been considered and studied. PEC performance of a-SiC:H is often limited by its non-ideal energy band-edge alignment to the H2O/O2 redox potential, thus limiting the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and the whole water splitting process [4]. To overcome this downside, an external bias needs to be applied, contributing to counteract the overpotential required to trigger the direct water splitting reaction. The external bias also contributes to reduce overpotentials due to the presence of a surface SiO2 barrier layer and compensates interface charge carriers recombination as well. Previous studies have demonstrated that by removing the SiO2 native layer vii from a-SiC:H(i) surface, Jph values over 6 mA/cm2 can be achieved at a potential of -1.4 V vs. Ag/AgCl in contrast to values lower than < 4 mA/cm2 obtained without the oxide removal. In fact, the existence of surface states (SS) originated from the hydroxyl group termination on the oxide surface, form an electronic state that is typically located within the semiconductor bandgap. The theory that such states act as recombination centers for minority photo carriers, fits quite well with the assumption that surface recombination competes with charge transfer from the semiconductor band towards the electrolyte. Additionally, it has been reported that depending on the density and energetic position of SS, these can provide another favorable pathway for indirect charge transfer to the solution, competing with the undesirable recombination mechanism. Knowledge in this field is limitated to full-drift diffusion simulations in steady-state and dynamic regimes for photo-anodic currents in crystalline materials. In the current work, an experimental study has been carried out over an amorphous material (a-SiC:H) acting as photocathode for PEC water splitting. Thus, adding knowledge in this field. Attempts to understand the role of a-SiC defects in PEC water splitting performance have been carried out in 2009 by Simonds et al. [5]. As a result of these, defects density in the bulk of the a-SiC increases with carbon concentration, from ∼9 × 1016 cm−3 (6%C) to ∼8 × 1017 cm−3 (11%C), leading to a reduction of the PEC performance. On the other hand, defect densities in the SiC/SiO2 interface (SS) were approximated by Gaussian distributions with maximums of ∼2 × 1012 cm−2 · eV−1 (Ivanov et al. [6]). The latter finding was retrieved from Capacitance-Voltage (C−V) measurements over metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) structures, and fit quite well with the SiC SS density distributions reported in this work. The current work consists in three parts. In the first part, Bandgap engineering of a-SiC:H thin films was carried out to assess the material light absorption without compromising its photoelectrochemical water splitting capabilities. The tailoring was performed by varying the hydrogen concentration in the semiconductor and by post-deposition isochronical annealing treatments from 200 to 700 ◦C. By isochronical annealing, the same sample is submitted to the different temperature steps, from low to high temperature. After this analysis, the most suitable samples for water splitting application were evaluated as photocathodes in 1 M sulfuric acid under chopped light illumination. These a-SiC:H samples were doped with aluminum and deposited on different Silicon substrate conductivity types to assess the substrate influence in the a-SiC:H(Al) photocurrent response. This constitutes the second part or the work. Finally, in the third part, the role of SS in the photocathodic current for a-SiC:H(Al) absorber layers was experimentally analyzed. This analysis was based on steady-state and dynamic electrochemical models. Results concerning a-SiC:H(Al) photocathode stability under darkness and illumination conditions are also shown and discussed in this part. Concerning the findings and the novelty in this work, localized a-SiC:H(Al)/SiO2 SS would take part in a desirable mechanism of indirect electron charge transfer viii to the electrolyte, and thus, conduct hydrogen evolution reaction. Related to the SiO2 native layer, the evidence suggests that the SiO2 layer reduction during PEC tests triggers a favorable semiconductor-electrolyte interface. This interface exhibits less overpotential barriers which promotes photocurrent generation. A correlation exists between the retrieved SS density (NSS) and Urbach energy (EU) values. The EU is associated with disorder-induced electronic tail states or Urbach tails, which are localized states near the semiconductor band-edges. This correlation, as well as other a-SiC:H(Al)/SiO2 interface studies, support the reliability of our NSS calculations for the c-Si(p)/a-SiC:H(Al)/SiO2/electrolyte system. Finally, a charge transfer mechanism assisted by photogenerated minority carriers from the c-Si substrate has been also proposed in this workItem Testing pALPIDE sensors for particle detection and Characterization of a Laser beam using a webcam CMOS sensor(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2023-01-16) Soncco Meza, Carlos; Gago Medina, Alberto MartínThe upgrade program of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) was implemented during the second Long Shutdown program (2019/2020). For this program, the ALICE Collaboration (A Large Ion Collider Experiment) proposed, among others, a new detector called Muon Forward Tracker (MFT). The primary goal of the MFT detector, installed on December 2021 and located between the Inner Tracker System (ITS) and the Muon Spectrometer, is to improve the capability of vertex reconstruction. The MFT is equipped with the same pixel sensors used for the ITS upgrade. These sensors are the ALICE Pixel Detectors (ALPIDE), a kind of monolithic active pixel sensor. The MFT is composed of five arrays of pixel sensors which are configured as parallel discs covering −3.6 < η < −2.45. Some prototypes were designed in order to achieve the final version of the ALPIDE, such as the pALPIDE family, which was divided into three versions (i.e., pALPIDE-1,2,3). The ALICE upgrade also included a new system for the data taking and simulation called Online-offline (O2) to replace AliRoot. We designed the geometry of two non-active parts of the MFT and included them in the O2 system. The first goal of this thesis is focused on the characterization of the pALPIDE-2. This sensor is segmented into four groups corresponding to four types of pixels. This characterization includes the test of analogue and digital. According to these tests, we identified a group of pixels that do not work correctly. The threshold scan tests showed the threshold level in each pixel is influenced by the input capacitance according to its n-well size and the surrounding area. Also, we studied the response of the pALPIDE-2 when it was exposed to a soft x-ray source, varying the distance between them. This test showed that the hit count changed according to the inverse square of the distance. iv The second goal of this thesis was to implement a low-cost tool based on a CMOS sensor to characterize laser beams. This tool comprises a Raspberry, a Pi Camera with a pitch size of 1.4 µm, and an optical system. To test the accuracy of the results of this tool, we made similar measurements with other sensors. A photodiode and a light-dependent resistor performed these measurements, which showed the spot radius size compatibility. However, the CMOS sensor expressed the highest precision and is a more affordable tool than commercial devices.Item Contribution to the characterization of emerging photovoltaics technologies in Lima-Peru(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2023-01-13) Conde Mendoza, Luis Angel; Palomino Töfflinger, Jan AmaruThis Doctoral Thesis contributed to forming a new photovoltaic (PV) laboratory in Lima-Peru, by developing an outdoor characterization system for PV modules. This system enables performance studies of different PV technologies under outdoor conditions. The new laboratory is the first of its kind in Peru due to its appropriate instrumentation for various PV performance research. This system was installed in the outdoor-PV laboratory of the Physics section (12◦2′S, 77◦1′W) at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru (PUCP) in collaboration with the IDEA research group of the University of Jaén (UJA) in Spain. Seven PV modules of different technologies, and instruments are currently installed to measure environmental conditions. This system measures the current-voltage (I-V) curve of each PV module at five-minute intervals and simultaneously measures module temperature and irradiance. Additionally, the solar spectrum and environmental conditions are measured. With these experimental data, it is possible to carry out characterization and performance studies of PV modules or systems. The system started working in March 2019 and continues to work automatically to date. Three types of PV technologies began to be characterized: Aluminum Back Surface Field (Al- BSF), Hetero-junction with Intrinsic Thin-Layer (HIT), and Amorphous/micro-crystalline silicon tandem (a-Si/μc-Si). Four additional technologies were installed in 2020: Interdigitated Back Contact (IBC), Passivated Emitter Rear Totally Diffused (PERT), Amorphous Silicon (a- Si), and Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS). The first part describes the characterization system composed of an I-V curve tracer, a multiplexing system, and environmental sensors. PV modules, measuring instruments, sensors, components for circuit boards, and connection diagrams are listed. The automated control section describes the architecture of the software developed in LabVIEW for measurement, visualization, and data storage. In the second part, an analysis of the data extracted from the I-V curves is made, mainly in the maximum power point. For this, a methodology was developed to calibrate the PV modules outdoors. Simple methods such as Osterwald and Constant Fill Factor (FFk) were used to model the maximum power of HIT, Al-BSF, and tandem a-Si/μc-Si, for a year (May 2019 – April 2020). Next, the energy conversion efficiency is analyzed using the Performance Ratio (PR) in the following PV technologies: HIT, Al-BSF, tandem a-Si/μc-Si, IBC, PERT, a-Si, and CIGS for another year (March 2020 – February 2022). In the third part, an experimental study of the solar spectrum was carried out during one year (March 2019 – February 2020). The spectrum was characterized by the Average Photon Energy (APE). It was found that the yearly APE for the study period was 1.923 eV, indicating that the spectrum in Lima has a blue shift with respect to the AM1.5G standard spectrum. Additionally, the variation of the monthly APE during the year is negligible. Then, a theoretical evaluation of the Mismatch Factor (MM) and spectral gain was made for the spectral response (SR) of seven PV technologies: a-Si, Perovskite, CdTe, two CIGS with different SRs, multi-Si, and mono-Si. In the part of conclusions and future works, the objectives achieved and the current state of the research laboratory with the new systems and instruments installed are summarized. Finally, in the appendixes there is more detailed additional information on the circuits, algorithms, and mathematical arrangements that were necessary for the development of the thesis.Item From light neutrino decay phenomenology to muon neutrino cross-section measurement at MINERvA experiment(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2022-08-15) Ascencio Sosa, Marvin Vladimir; Gago Medina, Alberto MartínThis thesis tackles two essential topics of neutrino physics: neutrino decay and neutrino cross-section measurement. First, the invisible and visible neutrino decay is analyzed through a phenomenological approach, considering future long-baseline neutrino experiments such as DUNE and a hypothetical neutrino beam toward the ANDES laboratory. The study takes into account the νμ and νe disappearance and appearance, respectively, for both FHC and RHC flux modes. The results showed a negligible matter effect for DUNE but significantly more notable at ANDES. At 90% C.L., the sensitivity to the decay parameter α3 can be as small as 2 × 10−6 eV2 for a chosen coupling. The impact of neutrino decay in the determination of θ23 and δCP were also shown. Second, the double-differential cross-section measurement for νμ-carbon interactions with three-momentum transfer |q| < 1.2 GeV obtained with medium energy exposures in the NuMI beam at MINERvA experiment are reported. The measurement is presented as a function of |q| and Eavail and reviews different interaction models and nuclear effects along quasi-elastic to resonance processes to define a new model for a better agreement. The double differential cross sections are compared to the MnvTunes, GENIE, and NuWro predictions.Item Coherencia como recurso en los sistemas cuánticos abiertos(Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2022-07-26) Yugra Carcasi, Yonny Daniel; De Zela Martinez, Francisco AntonioIn this thesis, we address open quantum systems subjected to Markovian and non- Markovian evolutions. We diagnose these two regimes using the relative entropy of coherence. We specially address the case of two qubits encoded in the polarization degree of freedom of photon beams. The two qubits play the roles of system and ancilla. In our experimental setup, we need only two parameters to control Markovian and non-Markovian regimes. We also propose and provide a proof-of-concept for the implementation of a quantum gate that drives an open system so that it can reach maximal coherence. Our ndings also illustrate possibilities for generating non-Markovian processes, which are important to recover information that has gone from the system to its environment. We thereby show how non-Markovianity can be considered as a resource in open quantum systems.